Historical Perspective of Sindh

In  the  late  18th  century,  the establishment  of  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal gave  impetus  to  the study  of  oriental languages.  Whereas  Persian  texts  usually  do not  go  beyond  11th  century,  the Sanskrit literature  had  great  antiquity,  especially  Vedic literature  that  belongs  to  1000-900  B.C. RigVeda,  the  earliest  of  all  was  considered  more than 5,000 years old, as per suggestion of the

learned  Pandits  of  the  language.  Rig-Veda mentions god Indr, who was supposed to have subdued a local race having black skin and the later were reduced to slavery (Panhwar: 1988: 13).

This was used as an argument to claim that  at  that  time  the  whole  of  the  Indian subcontinent was occupied by Dravidians (the black people), who were driven away to South India  by  the  Aryans, some  5,500  years  back. Who  were  these  outsiders,  the  Aryans,  and where  they  came  from, was  an  obvious question.

Max  Muller,  a  leading  authority  on Sanskirt  language,  finding  grammatical similarities between Sanskirt, Greek, Latin and Germanic  languages,  came  forth  with  the theory  in  1864  A.D.  that Sanskirt  was  the oldest  language  from  which  came  out  the European,  Iranian  and  Indian languages.  He elaborated  the  point  by  saying  that  the Sanskrit-speaking  Aryans  belonged originally to the area of Caucasus Mountain from where they  moved  eastwards  and  westwards,

resulting into divergence of the languages. This theory  found  worldwide  acceptance  for  many decades.

The  excavations  of  Mohen-jo-daro  by Sir John Marshall told a different version. The religion  of Harappans  was  altogether  different from  the  Vedic  religion.  Therefore,  these people were not Aryans but belonged to some other race. From the provisional examination of skulls  (excavated from Mohen-jo-daro),  it  was quickly  manipulated  that  the  Harappans  were proto-Mediterranean people  similar  to Dravidians of South India. The next easy step was  to  say  that  they  (Dravidians) were conquered by Aryans.

The  antiquity  of  Mohen-jo-daro  was  yet a  guess  work  till  some  thirty  years  after  the beginning  of  its  excavations  when  Wheeler assigned  to  it  the  years  2300-1650  B.C.  This date has  now  been  confirmed  from contemporary  trade  articles  in  Mesopotamia. The  adherents  of this  theory  of  destruction  of Harappans  included  Marshall,  Mackay,  Piggot and Wheeler. Of the last two mentioned, Piggot went  to  the  extent  of  proving  superiority  of Aryans  to  the Harappans in  weaponry.  He assigned this to war chariot and adze-axe used by the conquerors. Wheeler stated that Aryans did  not  live  in  cities,  and  were  nomadic pastorals,  less  civilized  than  the  people they had  conquered.  This,  however,  reduced  the age  of  Rig  Vedic  Aryans  to  1750-1650  B.C. from  the  original  claim  of  3500  B.C.  believed for more than 90 years. The historical literature so developed on Max Muller’s theory was now to be readjusted to 1750 B.C.

But  the  theory  of  all  languages  of  the subcontinent  having  been  derived  from  Sanskrit was not seriously challenged, as it was said that this language had 1500 more  years to influence and  evolve other  languages  of  northern subcontinent before it became a dead language, around 200 B.C.

On the Indian side, Sarkar published his work  ‘The  Races  of  Sindh,  Punjab  and Baluchistan’  in 1964.  This  was  based  on  the results of examination of skulls from Mohen-jodaro and Harappa, which were sent to England in early thirties and reports were received back after  30  years  in 1960’s. The  report  beyond any  doubt  proves  that  these  people  were  not Dravidians  and  if  so,  Harappa and  Mohen-jodaro  could  not  have  been  destroyed  by  the Aryans. Not only that but examination of skulls shows  the  cornice  index  of  71,  which  also  is the  index  of majority  of  people now inhabiting Sindh and the Punjab, i.e Sikhs, Jats and many other indigenous tribes. They definitely are not Dravidians.  The  cornice  index  of  the  ancient Scythians of Iran is the same.

Another  work  on  the  Indus  by  Agarwal and Kusumgar (1974) for the first time showed that  Rig Vedic  Aryans  appeared  on  the subcontinental  stage  after  1050  B.C.  This  is based  on  Radio Carbon  Dating  and  these dates cannot be challenged. They brought with themselves  Grey  Ware and  Iron.  Iron  is mentioned  in  Rig-Veda.  Hitties  are  credited with  smelting  of  iron  going  back to  1200  B.C. and not earlier.

According  to  the  oceanographers,  due to  sea  level  changes  in  the  Indus  Valley,  in 20,000  B.P  (Before  Present),  the  sea-coast was  near  Multan.  The  desert  of  Thar  and western parts of Rajastan also were under the sea. Bangla Desh and Uttar Pardesh were also under the sea. The river delta heads must have been in the northern Punjab and north- western U.P.,  and  the  rivers  must have  been discharging into two gulfs of sea in a sheet flow making  the  whole  of  South  India  an island.

About  12,000  years  back,  the  sea  started receding from  upper Sindh  while  the  whole  of Sindh must have been re-exposed some 8,000 years back. This was the case, most probably when Mesolithic  age started  in  Sindh,  side by side with hunting and fishing cultures.

Around 20,000 B.P., the people of IndoGangetic  plains  migrated  to  Deccan  that  was an island by then, and they were to return back around  8,000  B.P.  The  period  of  twelve thousand years, intermingling produced almost a  uniform  race  of  Dravidians  probably  a  large number of languages of Dravidian group being spoken by different tribes.

When  the  sea  receded  from  the  IndoGangetic plains, the people moved back. Most probably, they were all Dravidians except those who  may  have  moved  down  from  the mountains.  They  lived on hunting  and  fishing till  Mesolithic  age.  The  Mesolithic  age  was soon  replaced  by  Neolithic revolution  that ultimately gave rise to the Indus Culture.

The  people  of  early  Stone  Age,  having Hunting  and  Food-gathering  as  their profession, resided in  Sindh  prior  to  50,000 B.C.  The  Rohri  Flint-tool  factories  provide archaeological  evidence  to that  effect.  The Rohri tools also show the presence of Man in Middle  Stone  Age  (50,000  -100,000 years back).  Inspite  of  sea  level  changes  and flooding of the whole of Sindh time and again by the advancing  sea,  the  Stone  Age  toolfactories  survived  for  some  period  during  late Stone Age (35,000-10,000 years back).

The sea level changes made the Deccan Plateau an island, and people after continuous mingling for over 12,000 years produced almost a  uniform  race  of  Dravidians  and  a  group  of Dravidian languages.

When the sea again receded from Sindh and  Punjab,  the  Dravidian  population  moved towards  the riverine  areas  for  hunting,  foodgathering and fishing. The stone tool factories at Rohri and Mile 101 supplied these tools, some of  which  are  considered  as  microlithic.  These types of tools were evolved after 10,000 B.C.

The  Mesolithic  Age  started  in  Sindh around  5,500  B.C.  The  food-gatherers  and hunters  started domesticating  animals.  The later surrendered their freedom to Man who by his  intelligence  was able  to  take  them  to suitable pastures and watering points. It was to the mutual benefits of man and animal that the two decided to live together.

Somewhere  in  The  Crescent  (Turkey, Lebanon,  Jordon  and  Israel),  the  Neolithic Revolution,  i-e  domestication  of  animals  and rudimentary agricultures started at a number of places  around 7,000  B.C.  It  slowly  spread  to river  valleys  of  Nile  and  Euphrates  where civilizations arose. From Mesopotamia as well as  Turkey,  the  agricultural  practice  spread  to some small and scattered valleys in Iran. The  migration  of  people  from  Iran towards Sindh started around 4,000 B.C. In the next 200-300 years, they reached Balochistan, Orangi (Karachi) and at many sites in Kohistan namely  Arabjo,  Shahjo,  Khajur,  Karchat, Pokran,  Padekh,  Tando  Rahim,  Ali  Murad, Wahi Pandhi,  Drighmathi,  Chakarkot  and Naing  etc,  as  explored  by  Mujamdar  (1934); and  more such  sites  unveiled  by  Professor Rauf Khan. From there, they moved to Amri around 3,500 B.C. Here they evolved the technique of growing wheat on preserved moisture left over by  the  flooding of  river  Indus,  without  help  of winter rains. From  3,500  B.C.-1,000  B.C,  we  have various phases  of  Neolithic  and  Chalcolithic Cultures  known  as  Amri,  Kot  Diji,  Mohen-jodaro, Cemetry-H,  Jhukkar  and  Jhangara  in Sindh.  From  the  study  of  many  archaelogical sites  in Balochistan  during  different  periods,  it can  be  concluded  that  there  has  been continuous migration  from  Iran  during  Indus Culture  in  its  early,  mature  and  declining phases (3,500-1,000 B.C). The archaeological excavations  at  Mehr  Garh  near  Dadhar  have taken the period to almost 6,000 B.C. Since fishing and hunting tribes of Sindh were  Dravidians  and  spoke  Dravidian languages; and since Neolithic and Chalcolithic people  were  of  some  Indo-European  type (looking like Sikhs and Jats etc) and spoke the same  proto-Indo-European  languages,  the mingling  of  two languages  and  people  took place.  Since  agriculture  could  support  80%  of the  population  of Sindh;  and  as  the  hunting tribes  usually  do  not  accept  agriculture  as  a way of life, it could be assumed that 80% of the population  spoke  Indo-European  languages while  remaining  20%  spoke  Dravidian languages. And, when intermingling took place, a few linguistic borrowings to the extent of 20-25% from the Dravidian languages took place (up  to 1,000 B.C.)  in case  of  Sindhi.  Such an influence  is  apparent  to  this  day  in  the  Sindhi language.

Such a linguistic mix for 2,500 years (up to 1,000 B.C.) produced languages in the Indus Valley cultural  areas  that  could  be  safely termed  as  proto-Sindhi,  proto-Punjabi,  protoGujrati, and probably  proto-South  Gujrati (Marathi)  and  also  proto-Hindi  in  the  easternmost districts of the Punjab and north-western districts of U.P. adjoining Alamgirpur. Around 1,000 B.C., came the Rig-Vedic Aryans.  It  is  not  yet  certain  if  Vedic  Sanskrit was  a  language  spoken  in  some  parts  of the northwestern  subcontinent;  or  it  was  spoken somewhere in the mountains of Hindukush; or even  eastern  Caspian  Sea  area.  Most probably,  it  was  a  language  like  proto-Sindhi, proto-Punjabi  and  proto-Hindi.  It  was  a language  restricted  to  only  a  small  area  and spoken  by  the people  who  later  on  became champions  of  the  religious  sect  known  as Brahmanism. Assuming that  it  was  a  language brought  by  Aryans  who,  according  to  some scholars, had migrated from southeast Caspian area, then it was a language that was akin to the  proto-Indo-European  language from  which had evolved proto-Sindhi and other languages.

The  Rig-Vedic  Aryans  appear  to  be dynamic  in  spreading  their  religion  and imposing  it  on Indus  Valley  people,  who  had gone  through  stages  of  decay  for  some  700-800 years. Indus Valley had lost its script and had  become  illiterate  since  about  1650  B.C. The  Aryans  soon evolved  a  script  (Brahmi) either from Hebrew or from the Indus script, for writing  of  Vedas.  This religion  allowed  this obscure language Sanskrit to impart its words to all languages of the Subcontinent, especially the northern ones between 800 to 600 B.C. Around  600  B.C.,  Aryans started asserting their political power by establishment of 16 Aryan States in the northern India, called Mahapadhyas. It is certain that Sindh was not one of the Aryan states listed, as: 1. Kamboja, 2. Gandhara,  3.  Avanti,  4.  Asmaka,  5. Surasena, 6. Matsya, 7. Panchala, 8. Kuru, 9, Anga, 10. Magadha, 11. Kasi, 12. Kosala, 13. Vajji, 14. Malla, 15. Chedi, and 16. Vatsa. Under various Aryan state-governments, the  Brahmans  gained  unlimited  powers.  The Indus Valley religion too was not dormant. The cross  between  Rig-Vedic  religion  and  Indus religion resulted into evolution of a new religion called  Brahmanism.  The  borrowings  from  the old  religion  included  Lingum-worship, Shiva Puja, Durga and many other traits and the new religious  doctrines  were  incorporated  in Brahmanas and  Sutras of  Aryans  around  600 B.C. The  population  expansion  caused Brahmans to restrict  the  use  of  meat  only  to them-selves and it was religiously forbidden to others.  They monopolized  literacy  and  most government  jobs  and  the  use  of  Sanskrit  as official language. The  resentment  against  Brahmanism, their  monopoly  of  Sanskrit  and  their official status gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism who forbade use of meat and killing of animals etc. Their religious texts were written in Pali and old Marathi instead of Sanskrit. It  was  Jainism  that  gained  ground in Sindh,  Gujrat,  Maharashtra  and  adjoining areas. Buddhism  spread  in  other  parts,  but Sanskrit still asserted its influence. From 519 to 450/400 B.C., Sindh and the whole  of  present  Pakistan became  part  of Achaemenian Empire. Their own language was Avesti, but they adopted Aramaic (old Syraic) as official  language.  Their  religion was Zoroasterism.  Most  probably  they  did  not propagate their religion in this part of the world.

Their official language Aramaic of Semite group does  not  seem  to  have  produced  much influence. Achaemenians  administered  their possessions  properly  and  exacted  taxes  fully, but  they  do  not seem  to  have  interfered  in religion. Alexander was to find strong Brahmans or  Jain  philosophers in  Sindh  in  325  B.C.  The Aramaic  or  Avesti  influenced  local  languages very little.

Alexander  and  his  governors  ruled Sindh for  only  two  years  and  their  language  - Greek  could not  have  influenced  Sindhi  or other languages much. The  successors  of  Alexander were Mauryans.  Their  first  ruler  was  Chandragupta Maurya  who  most  probably  was  a  Jain. His official language was Pali. His grandson Asoka (272-232  B.C.)  introduced  Buddhism  in  whole of his empire. Pali, being the court as well  as the  religious  language,  must  have  influenced all languages  of  the  subcontinent  during  the Mauryan rule from 323-187 B.C.

It was this blow to Sanskrit that by 200 B.C.,  it  became a  dead  language. With  it,  the Brahmanic religion  gave  way  to  Buddhism  in whole of the subcontinent. Bactrian  Greeks  (184-70  B.C.) Scythians  (70  B.C.),  Parthians  (46-78  A.D.), Kashans  (78-175  A.D.)  and  later  Parthians (175-283  A.D.)  ruled  Sindh  one  after  another. Under the first three, the official language was Greek, but  their  bilingual  coins  show  that  Pali too was in vogue. Later Greeks, Scythians and Parthians were  Buddhists  and  Pali  was  their religious  language.  The  Greek  language  was unknown  to the common  people.  Under Kushans  and  later  Parthians,  Pali  was  both official  and  religious language.  Between  323 B.C., and 283 A.D., a period of over 600 years,

Pali  must  have  influenced  all  Indo-European languages  of  the  subcontinent  tremendously.

This is little realized by the linguists. Sassanians  ruled  Sindh  only  for  73 years.  Their  official language  was  Pahlavi.  It must have influenced all the languages of the present  Pakistan.  In  the Sassanian  era,  there were  four  important  languages  of  the  ancient world;  Greek,  Latin,  Pahlavi and  classical Sanskrit.  Sindh,  being  within  the  zone  of influence of classical Sanskrit and Pahlavi, must have been influenced by both. Guptas started aspiring for power in the 3rd  century.

The  600  years  rule  of  the subcontinent by Buddhists, relaxation of morals by  their  monks  as well as  double  standard  of their morals brought about decay of Buddhism and  revival  of Brahmanism under  Guptas.

Their  nucleus  was  in  the  very  birth  place  of Buddhism  around  Magadha  and  their  power spread  to  most  of  the  subcontinent  in  a century. Guptas revived Sanskrit and made it the official language.  Many  religious  and  scientific texts  were  written  in  it.  The  Buddhists  also started writing their books in Sanskrit from the beginning  of  Christian  era  and  their contribution to Sanskrit was no less than that of Brahmans.  The  classical  and  scientific  works written during Gupta period were rendered into Arabic in 8th and 9th centuries. The new lease of life that Guptas gave to this language made it  official  language  of  many  states  not  even under  control  of  the Guptas.  This  classical Sanskrit, a dead language, and only known to priest  has  lived  up  to  this day.  Since  it succeeded  600  years  of  Pali’s  glory,  it  is certain  that  classical  Sanskrit  borrowed from Pali  rather  than  vice  versa.  Pali  could  only have  borrowed  loan  words  from  Sanskrit  of Brahmana and  Sutra period  or  the  middle Sanskrit.

Sindh  was  under  Sassanian  control  for about  73  years,  but  Sindh’s  trade  with  Iran continued. This  trade  in  the  hands  of  Iranian Jews settled in Debal continued right up to the 10th  century,  as is  reported by  Martin  Gilbert. Due to such contacts, Pahlavi too exercised its influence on early Sindhi upto the conquest of Sindh by Arabs. Under Valikas (356-415 A.D.) who  were contemporaries  of  Chandra  Gupta-II Vikaramaditiya, Sanskrit was official language in the subcontinent, and it is possible that Valikas too  used  it  as  official  language,  most  probably through this time. The early Sindhi was used in its area of habitat for all purposes. The Valikas succeeded  by  local  principalities  might  have followed the same practice between 415 to 475 A.D. The Huns of Malwa who may have ruled Sindh  between  475-499  A.D.,  had  become fanatic Hindus.  They  had  smashed  the  Gupta Empire  after  succession,  and  had  adopted Sanskrit  as official  language.  They  might  have used that language in Sindh as they ruled Sindh for 24 years.

The rulers of Rai dynasty in Sindh (409-641 A.D.) must have used Sindhi and Sanskrit for  official and  religious  use.  They  were succeeded by Brahmans (641-712 A.D.) It is a conjecture  that Chach, the  founder  of  this dynasty was the deposed King of Kashmir, and within  eight  years  became  the King  of  Sindh. Since  the  official  language  in  Kashmir  was Sanskrit,  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that the  same practice  might  have  followed  in  Sindh.  The Sindhi  language  was  also  in  use  in Sindh  as the  Arab  travellers  were  to  see  in  mid-tenth century.

The  official  language  in  Sindh  was Arabic  under  Umayyads  (711-750  A.D.), Abbasids  (751-854  A.D.),  and  Habaris  (854-1011  A.D.).  But,  it  was  restricted  only  to  the large  cities  where Sindhi  too  was  in  use. However,  in  the  rural  areas,  only  Sindhi prevailed. During  the  reign  of early  Arabs,  Arabic as  official  and  religious  language  did  exercise influence  on  local languages, the  extent  of which is too difficult to ascertain, as no writings of that period have survived. During this period Islam,  Hinduism  and  Buddhism  lived  and flourished side by side up to 13th century. So, the  Classical  Sanskrit  being  the  religious language of Buddhists as well as Hindus must have exercised its influence on Sindhi. The  Soomras  ruled  between  1011  and 1351 A.D. During this period, due to the efforts of  the  Ismaili  preachers,  a  large  number  of Hindus and Buddhists were converted to Islam, so much so that Buddhism almost disappeared from  Sindh  by  13th  century. 

The  poetry  of Ismaili  preachers  has  very  few  Arabic  words and  thus  indicates  scant  influence of  that language.  The  Sindhi  with  Devanagri  script was used for inscriptions and official work.

The Sammas (1315-1525 A.D.) adopted Persian  as  the  official  language  as  their inscriptions show.  They  also  used  Arabic  in inscriptions.  But,  both  the  languages  had limited  influence  on Sindhi  mainly  because they  had  not  reached  the  greater  masses  of the  land.  The  poets  of these languages belonged  to  the  courts.  The  Ismaili  preachers too seem to have coined religious words from local languages to make themselves intelligible to  the  masses.  The  massive  Persian  and Arabic  influence  on  Sindhi  is  a  later phenomenon of 18th and 19th centuries. The  Arghoons, Tarkhans  and  Mughals (1525-1700  A.D.)  ruled  for  175  years.  Under them the use of Persian in Sindh increased. The influence  of  Persian  and  Arabic  on Sindhi  was confined to official and literary circles, while the popular  Sindhi  poetry  continued  utilizing indigenous  idioms.  The general  masses  of Sindhi  population  were  isolated  from  state affairs for nearly two centuries and so the Sindhi language did not absorb too many words of the court language. Under  the  rule  of  the Kalhoras  (1700-1783  A.D.)  and  Talpurs  (1783-1843  A.D.), Persian  remained  the  official language.  Sindhi absorbed a large number of Persian and Arabic words during this period, the reason being that the  courtiers  and  officials  were  locals  and  it were  they  who  composed  ‘learned’ poetry  and other works. This was also the age of advanced Sufi mystic poetry. These poets added Persian and  Arabic  words  to  Sindhi  since  they  often stood involved in high polemics with orthodoxy. The Sindhi Sufi poets of Arghoon, Tarkhan and Mughal period were however quite conservative in the use of Persian and Arabic words in Sindhi writings since their audience were mostly, if not exclusively,  the  masses,  and  thus  they  used foreign  words  only  wherever  they could  not avoid it. During  the  British  period  (1843-1947 A.D.),  Sindhi  was  recognized  as  the official language  in  Sindh.  A  large  number  of  words had  to  be  coined  for  official  and  literary use. Some  words  already  in  use  in  administrative correspondence  in  Persian  were  adopted  for the same purpose. The Hindu writers also used Persian  and  Arabic  words  as  liberally  as Muslims did.  Thus  a  large  number  of  Persian and  Arabic  words  in  Sindhi  pertains  to  the period of 18th and 20th century. Undoubtedly,  Sindhi  came  in  contact with a galaxy of tongues during a vast period of interaction with alien tongues, but the linguistic genesis  of  Sindhi  remained  intact  inspite of everything.  May  be,  it  was  due  to  the geographical  isolation  of  the  Indus  Valley (surrounded by Himalayas in the north, Indian ocean in the south, desert land in the east and mountainous  ranges  in  the  west)  that  its language  preserved  its  virginity  by  and  large; or may be the alien rulers, their administrative sway and their tongues failed to penetrate into the  soul  of Sindh,  and  among  the  hearts  of greater masses. However, it is a fact of history that  despite inevitability  of  language  change, the Sindhi language maintained its roots buried down in the time immemorial.

Of  course,  the  modern  Sindhi  does contain  various  lexemes  which  might  have been  borrowed from  quite  a  variety  of languages  and  at  various  times  in  history. Tracing their sources is certainly a useful and interesting academic pursuit but this should not be  done  haphazardly.  A thorough  study  of cultural,  political  and  historical  contacts  is required to substantiate every single verdict of a borrowing; and then, there are so many types of  borrowing:  intimate  borrowing, cultural borrowing  (loan-translations  etc).  While intimate borrowing involves donations of words by  the  prestige  language  of  the  time,  the cultural borrowing is  mutual, through give  and take of culture.